AlbinosRadical
Citation de Baryton
Donne le lien des articles alors.
gros y'en a des tonnes, je peux C/C mes compilations :
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- Métallurgie du Fer : COMPLET
a) Lieu(x) : Anatolie de Nord-Ouest et Caucase, et rapidement Grèce et Nord de l'Iran, puis diffusion vers l'Inde, Mésopotamie et Europe de l'ouest.
b) Dâte(s) : Entre -2500 et -1200, il est difficile de déterminer à quel moment l'on peut parler d'utilisation nette du fer par rapport au bronze.
c) Détail(s) et note(s) :
L'âge du fer débute vers 1200 av. J.-C. en Anatolie, vers 1020 à 1000 av. J.-C. en Grèce, vers 800 à 700 av. J.-C. en Europe de l'Ouest, et peut-être dès le IIe millénaire av. J.-C. en Afrique centrale (note : prouvé dans d'autres notes qu'il n'y avaient aucunes preuves tangibles).
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Le fer météorique a été travaillé dès la fin du IVe millénaire av. J.-C., comme l'attestent des perles de fer de la période prédynastique égyptienne, ou un poignard (quelques parcelles de rouille adhérant au manche) découvert en Mésopotamie à Tell Asmar. Mais les premiers fers obtenus par réduction de minerai dans un four remonteraient au IIIe millénaire av. J.-C. en Anatolie. Un des plus anciens objets en fer connus qui pourrait être issu d'un travail au bas fourneau date des environs de 2500 av. J.-C. et provient d'une tombe royale du Hatti, dans le Nord de l'Anatolie, mais cette technique se développe surtout à partir du xviie siècle av. J.-C. Les Hatti pratiquaient déjà un art du bronze très sophistiqué.
Pendant longtemps les archéologues ont estimé que les premiers à utiliser le fer furent les Hittites, au IIe millénaire av. J.-C. Puis on a considéré que la métallurgie du fer était née en Syrie du Nord et en Anatolie, sur les piémonts du Taurus, dans une région susceptible de fournir du minerai et des forêts (pour le charbon nécessaire à la production du fer). Cependant, les Hittites semblent avoir été les premiers à faire un grand usage du fer dans l'armement. Si l'armée hittite utilisait surtout des armes de bronze, elle fut la première à employer le fer pour la guerre.
L'« âge du fer » commence un peu plus tard dans le reste de l'Eurasie. La Grèce passe à l'âge du fer vers 1050 av. J.-C., l'Europe de l'Ouest vers 800 av. J.-C. La métallurgie du fer supplante alors la métallurgie du bronze dans l'armement et l'outillage.
Le travail du fer a été introduit en Grèce au xie siècle av. J.-C., puis s'est diffusé vers le nord et vers l'ouest au cours des 500 années suivantes. L'Italie entre dans l'âge du fer vers 900 av. J.-C. et l'Europe de l'Ouest vers 800 av. J.-C.. La métallurgie du fer ne gagne l'Irlande que vers 500 av. J.-C. L'âge du fer n'a réellement débuté que lorsque le fer a commencé à remplacer le bronze dans la fabrication des outils et des armes.
À défaut de connaissances étendues sur les ensembles culturels et politiques de l'âge du fer, la culture matérielle des cultures européennes de cette période permet de dessiner de grands ensembles géographiques à l'intérieur desquels le matériel des fouilles présente une remarquable homogénéité, tant en termes de technique qu'au niveau des décors. La Grèce, qui est déjà entrée dans l'Histoire durant le premier âge du fer, est un cas à part. Il s'agit de la seule région du Vieux Continent où la métallurgie du fer est attestée dès le IIe millénaire av. J.-C.
Ces ensembles ou « complexes techno-économiques » persistent durant les deux âges du fer, « se dilatant et se contractant au gré des circonstances »
By convention, the Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is taken to last from c. 1200 BC (the Bronze Age collapse) to c. 550 BC (or 539 BC), roughly the beginning of historiography with Herodotus; the end of the proto-historical period. In Central and Western Europe, the Iron Age is taken to last from c. 800 BC to c. 1 BC, in Northern Europe from c. 500 BC to 800 CE.
The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers at Kaman-Kalehöyük in modern-day Turkey, dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, and archaeometallurgical examination indicates that it is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia". Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities around 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (≈1400–1200 BC).
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Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron-working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that "knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC". By the Middle Bronze Age increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia and South Asia (note : Ces données sont sujettes à caution (nationalisme Hindou) et au fait qu'il est possible que ces techniques furent introduitent par des migrations d'Anatolie, comme pour le cuivre). African sites are turning up dates as early as 2000–1200 BC (note : comme plus au dessus, très peu probable, basé sur peu d'éléments avec des dâtations suspicieuses).
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The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is believed to have begun with the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in Anatolia or the Caucasus and Balkans in the late 2nd millennium BC (c. 1300 BC). The earliest bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell Hammeh, Jordan around 930 BC (determined from 14C dating).
The Early Iron Age in the Caucasus area is conventionally divided into two periods, Early Iron I, dated to around 1100 BC, and the Early Iron II phase from the tenth to ninth centuries BC. Many of the material culture traditions of the Late Bronze Age continued into the Early Iron Age. Thus, there is a sociocultural continuity during this transitional period.
In Iran, the earliest actual iron artifacts were unknown until the 9th century BC. For Iran, the best studied archaeological site during this time period is Teppe Hasanlu.
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The development of iron smelting was once attributed to the Hittites of Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age, the Bronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. It was long held that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the "monopoly" on ironworking at the time. Accordingly, the invading Sea Peoples would have been responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. The view of such a "Hittite monopoly" has come under scrutiny and no longer represents a scholarly consensus. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons.
(note : voir juste en bas pour des précisions sur l'age du fer en Egypte)
Iron metal is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 671 BC.
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Iron working was introduced to Europe in the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in the preparation of tools and weapons. It did not happen at the same time all around Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins around 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes around 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia.
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The Iron Age in Central Asia began when iron objects appear among the Indo-European Saka in present-day Xinjiang (China) between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou.
The Pazyryk culture is an Iron Age archaeological culture (c. 6th to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in the Siberian permafrost in the Altay Mountains.
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The earliest evidence of iron smelting predates the emergence of the Iron Age proper by several centuries. Iron was being used in Mundigak to manufacture some items in the 3rd millennium BC such as a small copper/bronze bell with an iron clapper, a copper/bronze rod with two iron decorative buttons, and a copper/bronze mirror handle with a decorative iron button. Artefacts including small knives and blades have been discovered in the Indian state of Telangana which have been dated between 2,400 BC and 1800 BC The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa, Kosambi and Jhusi, Allahabad in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800–1200 BC. As the evidence from the sites Raja Nala ka tila, Malhar suggest the use of Iron in c.1800/1700 BC. The extensive use of iron smelting is from Malhar and its surrounding area. This site is assumed as the center for smelted bloomer iron to this area due to its location in the Karamnasa River and Ganga River. This site shows agricultural technology as iron implements sickles, nails, clamps, spearheads, etc, by at least c.1500 BC. Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site.
The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre in East India has been dated to the first millennium BC. In Southern India (present-day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The Indian Upanishads mention metallurgy. And the Indian Mauryan period saw advances in metallurgy. As early as 300 BC, certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India, by what would later be called the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. (Note : Ici il ne s'agit pas de l'Age du fer, ici le fer est récolté de façon native, puis chauffée et martelée pour obtenir du fer pur, qui sur place était de très bonne qualité de façon naturelle. Il ne s'agit donc pas de fonte, ou de minages intensifs ni d'un Age du fer, qui ne viendra que par les Aryens plus tard vers -800 dans le Nord-Ouest de l'Inde).
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The start of the Iron Age is marked by new cultural groupings, or at least terms for them, with the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greece collapsing in some confusion, while in Central Europe the Urnfield culture had already given way to the Hallstatt culture. In north Italy the Villanovan culture is regarded as the start of Etruscan civilization. Like its successor La Tène culture, Hallstatt is regarded as Celtic.
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The early first millennium BC marks the Iron Age in Eastern Europe. In the Pontic steppe and the Caucasus region, the Iron Age begins with the Koban and the Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures from c. 900 BC. By 800 BC, it was spreading to Hallstatt culture via the alleged "Thraco-Cimmerian" migrations.
Along with the Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures, on the territory of ancient Russia and Ukraine the Iron Age is, to a significant extent, associated with Scythians, who developed iron culture since the 7th century BC. The majority of remains of their iron-producing and blacksmithing industries from the 5th to 3rd centuries BC was found near Nikopol in Kamenskoye Gorodishche, which is believed to be the specialized metallurgic region of the ancient Scythia.
The Old Iron Age was an era of immense changes in the lands inhabited by the Balts, i.e. the territories from the Vistula Lagoon and the Baltic Sea in the west to the Oka in the east, and between the Middle Dnieper in the south and northern Latvia to the north. In the first century A.D., the Baltic people began mass production of iron from the available limonite, widely available in swamps. The local smiths learned to harden iron into steel, which resulted in tougher weapons than stone or horn instruments.
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In Central Europe, the Iron Age is generally divided in the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture (HaC and D, 800–450 BC) and the late Iron Age La Tène culture (beginning in 450 BC). The transition from bronze to iron in Central Europe is exemplified in the great cemetery of Hallstatt, discovered near Gmunden in 1846, where the forms of the implements and weapons of the later part of the Bronze Age are imitated in iron. In the Swiss or La Tène group of implements and weapons, the forms are new and the transition complete.
The Celtic culture, or rather Proto-Celtic groups, had expanded to much of Central Europe (Gauls), and, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC, as far east as central Anatolia (Galatians). In Central Europe, the prehistoric Iron Age ends with the Roman conquest.
From the Hallstatt culture, the Iron Age spreads westwards with the Celtic expansion from the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the late Lusatian culture in about the 6th century, followed in some areas by the Pomeranian culture.
The ethnic ascription of many Iron Age cultures has been bitterly contested, as the roots of Germanic, Baltic and Slavic peoples were sought in this area.
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In the Greek Dark Ages (1050 BC – c. 750 BC), edged iron weapons were widely available, but a variety of explanations fits the available archaeological evidence. From around 1200 BC, the palace centers and outlying settlements of the Mycenaean culture began to be abandoned or destroyed, and by 1050 BC, the recognizable cultural features (such as Linear B script) had disappeared.
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In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the Villanovan culture, which succeeded the Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture in the territory of Tuscany and northern Latium and spread in parts of Romagna, Campania and Fermo in the Marche. The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture (c. 1300–750 BC), and 'Celtic' Hallstatt culture (which succeeded the Urnfield culture).
In Sardinia, iron working seems to have begun around the 13th–10th century BC with the Nuragic civilization, perhaps via Cyprus.
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The 'Celtic' culture had expanded to the group of islands of northwest Europe (Insular Celts) and Iberia (Celtiberians, Celtici and Gallaeci). In the British Isles, the British Iron Age lasted from about 800 BC until the Roman Conquest and until the 5th century in non-Romanized areas. Structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example, the brochs and duns of northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the islands. On the Iberian peninsula, the Paleohispanic scripts began to be used between 7th century to the 5th century BC. These scripts were used until the end of the 1st century BC or the beginning of the 1st century AD.
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The early Iron Age forms of Scandinavia show no traces of Roman influence, though such influences become abundant toward the middle of the period. The duration of the Iron Age is variously estimated according to how its commencement is placed nearer to or farther from the opening years of the Christian era, but it is generally agreed that the last division of the Iron Age of Scandinavia, the Viking Period, is considered to be from 700 to 1000 AD, when paganism in those lands was superseded by Christianity.
Early Scandinavian iron production typically involved the harvesting of bog iron. The Scandinavian peninsula, Finland and Estonia show sophisticated iron production from c. 500 BC. Metalworking and Ananyino culture pottery co-occur to some extent. Another iron ore used was ironsand (such as red soil). Its high phosphorus content can be identified in slag. Such slag is sometimes found together with asbestos-ceramic-associated axe types belonging to the Ananyino culture.
(sources : https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82ge_du_fer
